Devadasi system in Karnataka- Part 2

                                                                 Chapter- II

Historical Background

Emergence of Devadasi System

            There are few reasons how the Devadasi system was able to get a firm root on Indian subcontinent, which are;

1.      “As a substitute for human sacrifice, being an offering to the Gods and Goddess to appease and secure blessings for the community as a whole

2.      As a rite to ensure the fertility of the land and the increase of the human and animal population

3.      As a part of phallic worship which existed in India from early Dravidian times

4.      Probably sacred prostitution sprang from the custom of providing sexual hospitality for strangers

5.      Licentious worship offered by people, subservient to degraded and vested interests of the priestly class

6.      To create custom in order to control lower caste people in India by the upper castes and classes”.[1]

We can conclude all these points into, religious beliefs, caste system, male domination and economic stress, which played role into the rooting of Devadasi system in India.

Existence of Devadasi Practice in other Countries

There are instances when, one can question when the Devadasi custom was initiated, is it in India, or in other parts of the world? When we look into the world history, there are references regarding the Temple dancers or Devadasis. Such as, the inscription from the Ankor Borei inscription of Cambodia (611 A.D), it mentioned that, the temple had appointed seven dancing girl, and eleven singers[2]. N.M Penzer holds that Mesopotamia was the original home of the institution, he traces its beginnings to about 2090 BC, during the first dynasty of Babylon in the code of Hammurabi[3]. Marco Polo also described that in his time, parents were dedicating their daughters to the God; Parents kept their daughter with them for dancing services in the temples on important festive occasions; This ritual was repeated till the day of the marriage.[4] There is evidence of Devadasis system in Greece where the devadasis were appointed in the temple of Sun God. They were exhibiting dance it he temple and it was enjoyed by the priests, kings and powerful persons etc.[5] In 464 B.C, there held games called Olympia, where the noble and wealthy section were the participants of the games. Before entering into the arena, they will make a vow that they will donate more than hundred girls to the sun God. After the victory, they will fulfil their vow. Chamanlal a traveller from India noticed the prevalence of the system among the Red Indians. He says, ‘American Indians had the Hindu system of having Deva Dasis (Maidens of God).’ Incidentally, the starting of the Empire of the Incas in America in1100 A.D. coincided with the emergence of the Chola Imperialism under Koluttunga I. Chamanlal finds some apparent similarities in the method of dedication. Girls of noble families, who had completed ten years and the prescribed training, had to live as the ‘Maidens of the Sun God’ in the temple of Arukan in the capital city of Incas.[6]

            So, looking into this, we can assume that, both in India and abroad, girls were employed in the temple for dancing and singing, as a servant to God. But looking into temple histories, the mature girls were appointed as temple dancer’s and held a good position in the society. Since it was a sacred service, they were willing to do anything for the God and the temple. They were even exposed to the prostitution works. Priests were the ones whom creates such instances in the society. The tradition of Devadasis was sacred and famous not only in India, but other countries as well, but due to the corrupt temple officials, kings and noble or higher authorities, this profession became so polluted. Due to this degradation, the reformers, who came in the modern times saw this as an illegal/ social evil and compelled to abolish from their land.

Devadasi Practice in India

            Initially, this religious practice can be traced back to the Harapan period, followed by the Vedic and Later period accordingly. During the Later period, the Brahmins monopolised the religious rights, and placed themselves in the top of the hierarchy. Hence, it became their sole duty to regulate rules and regulations, thus people have to obey and follow it.  

            The earliest evidence of dancing girl was also dating back to the Harapan civilizations. The bronze dancing girl image unearthed from Mohenjo-Daro also depicts a temple dancer. The Archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler also supports this, but he was unable to prove it. Not only this, several other figures made out of clay were also unearthed from Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. It is possible that the dancing girl figurines are related to religious rituals, but unable to conclude them without concrete evidence. The evidence of employing women in temple as dancing girls was started form 5^th century A. D, by which the temple had acquired the power of a big landlord. There were some references about the devadasi system in Skanda Purana. In the “Purushottam Ksetra Mahamtya” in Skanda Purana and Bamadeva Samhita, which depicts women were employed in temples to serve God through dance in the rituals and festivals.

            In early history, a devadasi was a multi- faceted personality in that she played multiple roles- “surrogate of earth mother”, ‘priestess of love’ and ‘revered for being close to Godliness”.[7]

The kings began to build temples for worshipping as well as to show their might. They appointed the Brahmins as the controller of the temple and its properties, which enhanced the brahmins power and prestige in the society. The temple was also a treasure house for the kings and brahmins. To increase the might of the temples, the Brahmins started the practice of ritual dance, which functions as a major ritual to the service of God/ Goddess. A dance performed with the intention of moving the deity was considered to be the real form of prayer [8] which will eventually enhance the popularity among the ancient societies.

            We also have several other evidences as inscriptions and artistic works, such as, in the Ramgrah hills, near Benaras, which deploys a painting where a man seated and the dancing girls and musicians were at his feet. Later in Damodaragupta’s Kuttanimatam the devadasis are said to have received salaries from the state[9] In Kalidasa’s Meghdoot mentions girls dancing at Mahakala Temple of Ujjain, during the evening worship of Siva; ‘the temple girls’ cinctures tinkling with dancing steps, their hands weary with yak- tail fans’[10]. In Kalidasa play Malavikkagnimitra, he describes girls dancing in the royal court. So, it is safe to assume that early as fifth century the practice of dance was took place both in courts and temples.

            This custom of dancing mainly came into power in the sixth century A. D, because most of the Puranas which composed that time is referencing to the dancing of girls, for example, in the Bhavisya Purana it recommends the purchasing of girls for the purpose of temple. Hiuen Tsang also refers girls in the leading positions in the temple during the time of religious possessions in Sun Temple in Multan, which is a clear reference to the custom of devadasis. The Tejpur copper plate (9^th century A.D) also depicts the dancing girl in the Siva Temple.

            The Rajatarangini also describes that the king Jalauka had given the dancing girls as a gift to the temple of Siva. Dancing girls were attached to the temples of the Chandellas as is evidenced by the reference to Mahanachani Padmavati in the inscription of the Nilkanthesvara temple at Kalanjara, about 50 miles from Khajuraho[11]. All these references point towards the presence of Devadasi practice in throughout India.

            King Haribraman of West Bengal, also took the pleasure in appointing girls in the temple of his region. “Descriptions on the rituals of dancing in different inscriptions of India available, in the stone inscription of Jogimara Cave (3^rd century B. C, where it mentions, mentions the love of Devadinna, a painter for the devadasi Sutanuka.) Bhujabeswar Temple (975 A.D), Kalipadaswami Temple (1018 A. D), Brahmeswar Temple (1053 A. D), Megheswar Temple (1070 A. D), Sovaneswar Temple (1080 A. D), Narendreswar Temple (1083 A. D), Mukhalingam Temple (11^th Century A. D), Jaladiswar Temple (1144 A. D), Agastiswar Temple (1158 A. D), Laxmi Nrusingha Temple of Simanchalam (15^th Century A. D), and Sri Jagannatha Temple (16^th century A. D), there were some evidences of dancing rituals or the devadasi traditions.”[12]

In the Jaina tradition also, we can see some evidences of Devadasi system. In the eight century A. D an inscription from Karnataka refers to the employment of ‘patra’ or Devadasis in a Jaina temple[13]. We find dancing girls mentioned in the famous Ratnagiri Copper Plate grant from Orissa. The donee of this inscription was a devadasi named Karpurasri. She is also referred in the record as Salonapura-mahavihara vinirgata i.e., as hailing from Salonapura- mahavihara[14]. This provides evidence of the association of the devadasis with the Salonapura Mahavihara. There also evidence of dancing girl from Buddhist literature as well. The Jataka stories describes about around 16,000 dancing girls were placed in the inner quarters and they sing, dance and play music. Also, when the king comes, he rests his head on his favourite dancer. There is also a description that a courtesan named Amrapali, who devoted herself to Buddha himself. Samyukta Nikaya mentions that, the devadasis received a share of food crops. Another evidence of Devadasi system in Buddhism is seen in the Gaya Inscription of 1270 A D, Worship is here (offered) three times a day by means of instrumental music in the highest key (panchamagata, which is said to be erotic) and Rambha - like (a celestial dancer) Bhavanis (dancing girls attached to temples) dancing round wonderfully.”[15] Most of the times, we hear that Jainism and Buddhism didn’t tolerate such rituals or ceremonies. But the famous Indologist, Jouveau Dubreuil says, the dancing girls were admitted to the shrines around India, and Jains and Buddhists came to a term in this. Through this, it is evident that religion became widespread in India and gained popularity among the masses as well.      

            There is also evidence which suggest that, the Devadasis system was prevalent in Sri Lanka as well. The Cholas, majorly Raja Raja I, was responsible for this. According to tradition, every year in the month of February, the Devadasis from Tamil Nadu go to Sri Lanka and dance in the Hindu temple of Jaffna. It is a matter of fact that, most of the Hindu temples in Sri Lanka were constructed by Raja Raja Chola I to commemorate his naval victory. Ibn Batuta, so confirms this by saying there were almost five hundred dancing girls sang and danced before the God of Dineswara, while he was in Sri Lanka.

            From the Gupta period onwards, the Buddhism and Brahmanical religion dominated the plains of India. So, looking into this, it is evident that the monasteries and temples dominated the lives of people and developed into a stronghold on society. The cultural and intellectual activities generated by the temples were corollaries to these more important roles, the Devadasis were an item in this corollary sector of the temple’s world.[16]

Devadasi Practice in Orissa

            According to the Orissa records, it is believed that, the Ganga king, Narasimhadeva I, built the Konark temple and put efforts to make it as a majestic temple in Puri and soon the other kings who followed him started to build temple and donated lands for village construction and maintenance. Inscriptions points towards that, villages and town temples constructed due to the revenue which they received from land donations. In Numerous landowning samantas, princes, and kings of the period wanted to acquire merit and fame by building temples and donating land and villages for their maintenance.[17]In Orissa, the practice was more popularized in the Jagannatha Temple, Puri. The dancing girls were known as ‘Mahari’ or ‘Devadasi’. Their dance is known as ‘Mahari Nrutya’ or ‘Devadasi ‘Nrutya’.

            In the Gita Govinda stone inscription at the Jaya- Vijay gate of Sri Jagannath Temple, it is found that Gajapati Prataprudradev of Surya dynasty had reintroduced the dancing ritual before Lord Jagannath.[18] The dancing girls were from the Telenga community and were from the locals. It is also evident that the devadasi tradition existed in Jagannatha Temple was inspired by the South Indian tradition of Devadasi system.

            The legend behind the Gita Govinda stone inscription is that, the Lord was fascinated by the Gita Govinda recitation of a girl, then followed her, in the process garments of Lord Jagannath were torn by this wild adventure; next day sevakas[19] discovered the torn clothes of the Lord and informed the matter to the Gajapati; then the God explained the incident in a dread to Gajapati, as a result the concerned girl was employed as a Devadasi in the temple of Lord Jagannatha.[20]

            The dancing ritual existed since the time of Jayadev (12^th century A D). According to their duties they were known as;

1.      Angila- attendants of Gajapati

2.      GahanaMahari- dancing girls only meant for Lord Jagannatha, but at some times, they are with Goddess Lakshmi.

3.      BhitaraGayeni- exclusively dedicated to Lord Jagannatha, and were permitted to go up to the Kalahat door of the temple.

Devadasis Practice in South India

In South India, the devadasi tradition was majorly seen in the Saivite temples. The temples emerged as a great power during 4^th- 5^th century AD and reached its zenith during 10^th -11^th century. They employed a great number of Devadasis. Since, they were huge in number eventually in time, the devadasis became a sub- caste. The famous temple in Thanjavur, Rajarajesvara Temple is said to have employed more than four hundred devadasis.

The roots of devadasi system can be unveiled through the deciphering of epigraphs, from the 4^th century to 11^th century. A period-wise break-up of these epigraphs makes the point clearer. Out of 220 clearly dated inscriptions, 5 relate to the ninth century and 7 to the tenth century. The number rises suddenly to 61 in the eleventh and further rises to 71 in the twelfth century. But the number slowly declines from the 13^thcentury. In this century, we have 52 inscriptions. It further declines to 19 in the 14^thcentury.[21] By looking into the analysis, it is clear that devadasi institution was at its peak during 11^th- 12^th century, the age of feudal power in India. Hence, it can be assumed that the devadasi tradition was helped by the feudal system as its setup in the country.

Since, the popularization and institutionalization of devadasi system started majorly in south India, during the early medieval period, with the role of south Indian temples in it, we could see the exploitative nature of the devadasi system. We know that, devadasis were an integral part of the temples, where temples stood in front of economic and cultural developing stages. So, they are intertwined with each other. So, the Devadasi system from its formation was related to religion and religion was linked with socio- cultural development. In the feudal society the religion itself was under the influence of the kings, so they were all came under the same roof. Everywhere in India the process was similar. The religious powers in the early medieval south India were in the hands of brahmins, since they were the supreme authority of religious power.

Chola Period

            Inscriptions from Kulottunga III and Rajaraja III records the existence of Devadasi system, and their revival to its fullest form. The inscription describes that, Kulottunga III seated in the mandapa and enjoyed the dance performance of the devadasis (1204 CE).  In the time of Rajaraja III (1235 CE) the king granted sixty veli of land to the devadasi named Uravakkina of the Talaikkoli temple. The later Pandya’s also very eager to institutionalize the Devadasi system, which is evident from the inscription which tells that, the queen promoted devadasi system in Tirupattur temple and later extended to Sucindram temple.

In South India, the Devadasis system was quite common around all Brahmanical temples especially in Saivite temples. In those temples the authorities employed a good number of devadasis to perform which was matter of their prestige. The famous temple Rajarajesvara at Thanjavur had around 400 devadasis. Since, this practice was held for too long, the devadasis section had formed a separate sub- caste, with their own rules and customs. At the beginning they enjoyed a high and cultural standard, they had possession of enormous wealth, but with time they were all began to decay.

There is information regarding devadasi in temple inscriptions of ‘korangunathan’, ‘Pipilikeswar’ and ‘Sundereswar’ of Thiruchirappali district.[22] Vikramaditya I, the Chalukya king, brought most beautiful girls from the world to the temple which he constructed, Chandaleswar. The practice of Devadasi was much more followed in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu which is supported by various sources of evidences.

In the matter of temple building there existed a kind of competition among the kingdom and their respective heirs. Which was evident from the constructions of Chola dynasty. For surpassing their ancestors or contemporary rulers the imported every item starting from bricks to the architects from other places. These constructions usually last for more than twenty years.

Other Kingdoms

            While considering India, the growth of economy and power was centred on religion and temples, which same goes to south India as well. From fifth century onwards, we could see that large scale donations of land were happened to Gods and temples, which was a factor for the increased of temple power and they were also exempted from tax also, so they accumulated wealth and started to control people, community and villages. In south India this practice was started during the period of Satavahana’s later popularised by Pallava dynasty. Later (during fifth- sixth century) the transferring of land grands was quite common. All these situations led to closed- economy. Due to this the conversion from agricultural surplus to money became so hard. Hence the surplus had spent within the institution or village for the purposes of public worship, tanks, wells, irrigation channels etc,

A systematic method to start the construction of temples was started in the third century era by a pre- Pallava king, Ko-Cenganan; he, for the first time, introduced dance and music in the temples which he built.[23] But when we look into the archaeological evidences, the construction of temples before 5^th century AD is not available. The Pallava king Mahendravarman I record his achievement in an inscription which says that he made the ayatana (home) for Brahma, Isvara and Vishnu without the use of traditional material like bricks, timer, metal or mortar, and calls himself Vicitracitta (of a curious or inventive mind).[24] Due to rapid growth of temple, there happened a rapid increase in ritual and festivals. So, the temple needed more servants whom needed to manage the affairs of the temple and rituals. Hence like that, the number of priests also rose. During the reign of the Pallava king, Paramesvaravarman I, the Siva temple at Kuram was managed by only four persons who offered daily worship to the deity, watered the mandapam every day and recited passages from the Mahabharata. But the number of officials in the temple quickly increased in the next century. The Muktesvara temple at Kanchi which was built by the queen of Nandivarman Pallavamalla (A D. 731-96) had 54 employees, of whom as many as 32 were dancing girls.[25]

From 8^th century onwards, the major dynasties of south India, such as, Chalukya, Chola, Pallava and Rashtrakuda made donations to the temple. From the time of Rajaraja Chola (995- 1010 AD) onwards there were some changes in the royal control over the temple land, which was brought forward with the view that increasing revenues of big temples. In fact, when we look into the 10^th century, most of the revenue which the government got was transferred to the temples, and huge donations were made by the important officials, merchants and other people. Hence the royal and rich people had a good hold on the temple administration and utilized it for their own benefit and made a good fortune out of it. From this time onwards, the politics had started to interfere in the temple power. While the temple authorities were instruments for royal control, soon there formed an association with them (temple deities and king), whenever a king expires, the king’s image was placed alongside with temple deities.

Bhakti Movement

            When the Bhakti movement was at its peak, south India was dominated by Alvar saints and Nayanmars added with the puranic stories completely. the new doctrines had more effect on the society than anything. So, in order to attain Moksha, all the saints prescribed intense devotion and surrender of body and soul to body. To get moksha, they prescribed singing and dancing. In this the kings and all the higher authorities joined with at most devotion, which paved way for the socio- religious transformation. The Bhakti movement encouraged all sections of the society irrespective of caste supported and encouraged the people to serve God and attain liberation. The service to God means, construction of temples, cleaning the premises, helping the temple authority, all these elements contributed to the institutionalization of devadasi system to the next level.

            Saint Sambandar refers to the sweet music of devadasis and giggling sound of their music, he calls the dancing girls of Kumbakonam as tenarmoliyar, meaning ‘honey voiced women’ and they are said to have danced to the accompaniment of music.[26] He further says that the sound of music and dance combined with reciting of Veda is echoing in the temple. He also says that the dancing girls of the temple of Puhar performs dances.  

            From tenth century onwards, south India was dominated not by kings but by temples. They were built and maintained by the donation of guilds and merchants in the city. Smaller temples were built on villages and they were looked after the village headmen, they not only looked into the matter of religious rituals but also educational and cultural activities. These temples gave opportunities from most of the villagers, such as artisans, builders, scribes labourers, priests, musicians, dancers. The temple had another role which was like a Bank, they give money to people on a high interest rate, hence they made money from that way also.

            The priestly section became more stronger during the Bhakti era, and they promoted devadasi system. Temples in south India promoted the authority of the priestly class, they wrote the dharma of land and predicted auspicious things to life. They also served the kings in matter of advises and also provided special services to the king. With the support of the ruling house, they became the major power in the society. These powers were used for the growth of the devadasi system.

Vijayanagar Empire

            After the decline of Chola and later Pandya’s the system of devadasi system in south India was started to decline, but the events started to change, with the arrival of Vijayanagar empire. In which Kumara Kampana captured Tondaimandalam from Sambuvarayas and following that event that the restoration of devadasi system also occurred.[27]

            A major source of Devadasi system existed in the Vijayanagar is found from Virupaksha temple, which is a perfect example of temple architecture. The outer tower is packed with terracotta images of Gods, demigods, and men and women in bold depictions of nudity and a host of mythological themes; these images are believed to reflect the devadasi system[28], in which they enjoyed a good privileged life. The Vijayanagar period had brought back the superior authority of Devadasis. It is evident from Abdur Razak, a Persian traveller who visited Vijayanagar, had reported that ‘every temple had its crowds of Devadasis or handmaids of the God, and the prostitutes’ quarter was one of the sights of the capital.[29] He also mentions that, the Devadasis were living in the State controlled institutions the revenues of which went towards the upkeep of the police[30].

            After the decline of Vijayanagar empire, the devadasi system also started to degrade. The degradation reached its peak during the Nayaka period. The political instability of the state, the loss of the importance of the temple institution, frequent political interlude among devadasi, repeated transfers of the devadasis from one temple to another, the graded hierarchical order of the system, distracted from their so-called sacred principles of the divine service and poverty were the few caused for the degradation of the system.[31]During the British period they were considered as prostitutes and later it was criminalized.

Devadasis Practice in Karnataka

The Devadasis system was followed here over 1000 years and the chief among them was the Renuka Yellamma cult. Nudity and Nude worship to Goddess are also considered practices of devadasis of Karnataka, especially in Chandragutti and Saundatti.[32]There is also another belief that, whenever, a drought, famine or any form of epidemic occurs, to appease the God/ Goddess, the women from the lower caste section are offered to the local Goddess Huligamma.

            Earliest inscription which denotes ‘devadasis’ is found at Alanahalli (1113 A.D). before that, other epigraphic sources refer prostitutes as ‘Sule’ which is visible from the inscription Mahakala Inscription. So, we could confirm that at first the word which was used was ‘Sule’ in Karnataka is 733 A.D and ‘devadasi’ was used from 1113 A.D onwards. The custom of presenting girls as gifts to temples was prevalent in medieval Karnataka, which is evident from an epigraph from Malakere in Chitradurga district[33]. It records “the great minister Manne and various Karnams having come to the Manalkere Agrahara, made along with other grants, of four Sule for the Mulastan God. Another inscription from Gogga in Shimoga district gives some information of some kind of donations to shrines’ it also records a grant of a ‘Virgin’ girl and certain quantity of grain to temple.[34] Since the inscription decipher is not complete, which make it difficult to say whether the girl presented to the temple is a dancer or a maid. In fourteen districts of Karnataka, girls are handed over to deities, they are;

            Bellari district- Goddess Hulganga Devi and Yellamma, Shimoga District- Goddess Renuka Devi, Vijayapura district- Hanuman/ Maruthan, apart from these districts the Goddess Yellamma was prominent in the districts of Koppal, Raichur, Bagalkot, Belagavi, Yadgir, Kalburgi, Gadag, Dharwad, Haveri, Chitradurga, Davanagere,

Deities of Devadasis in Karnataka

1.      Renuka or Yellamma Cult

According to Legend, Renuka is the mother of Parasurama. She was killed by Parasurama, but she was brought back to life by Rishi Jamdagni, with Parasurama’s boon. For that, her head was not available, so Parasurama cut a women’s head from ‘Matang’ caste and revived her. But in the meanwhile, the Rishi cursed her to have leprosy and banished from the hermitage, but she was cured by the Sadhu’s in the forest. After that, she returned back, and the Rishi blessed her that she will attain great fame in Kaliyuga.

In Soundati hills, a temple was erected for Renuka in 13^th century, and she was considered to be the ‘Padmawati’ for the Jains. The devotees of Renuka, assemble there twice a year on Magha and Chaitra full moon days to offer their daughters to the temple, whom mainly are Dalits and Bahujans.

2.      Renukamba Cult

In the Chandragiri hills of Karnataka, erected a temple for Renukamba in 14^th century. The people from Dalit and Bahujans believes that Renukamba Devi is the reincarnation of Renuka or Yellamma. The speciality of the temple is that, the Dalit women go naked to worship this Devi, it is called ‘Betale Seva’ or Nagna Puja’ i.e., naked worship[35]. 

The other sections believed that, by doing this pooja, they will get good husbands, childless women will get children, and the ones who do not follow these practices were suffered a lot in the society.

3.      Khandoba Cult

The Khandoba temple is located in Pune, Maharashtra. It is the ‘Kula- daivat’ of Dalits, whom were worshiped by many sections of the society including the Muslim community, before the conversion to Islam and even after. The Robbers, and criminals who belongs to the Dalit community finalizes there plans here. The people offered their sons and daughters to the deity. The terms used are ‘Waghya’ for male and ‘Murali’ for female, it is a form of Devadasi; Murali whose token marriage is performed with Khandoba, remains unmarried throughout her life and leads a life same as the Devadasi of Yellamma.[36]

Devadasi System in Pre- British Period

            Pre- British period was considered as the golden period in the history of Devadasis. They had high respect as well as economic and social status in their states. They had an important role in transforming the temple culture as well as dance and music. They always stayed near the temple premises, and show their skills in the temple rituals and ceremonies. The king welcomed them in his court for entertain them. The big land lords, nobles and high officials made of use devadasis as entertainers and also as slaves, for their own desire. “During ancient period, they had a high esteem status in the society, girls from high castes were also joined in this. As Sriram points out “there was no particular caste from which women could be drawn for dedication and there were instances in the legends of princesses and girls from priestly classes becoming handmaidens of God. The Devadasis thus formed an occupational group rather than a caste.”[37] But presently the Devadasi section is more of a scheduled caste rather than an occupational group.

British Colonial Period

            Till 19^th century Devadasi system was practiced in south India, when it comes to north India, the Devadasi system met its end with the Muslim conquest, and the destruction of temples. During the British era, there was a shift in Devadasi ideology, they became prostitutes, instead of temple dancers. Hence, during 20^th centuries most of princely states and British governed states had banned this practice.

            The determined image of the devadasi as prostitute was cultivated in the bombast of the reformists and revivalists. The first anti-nautch movement was launched in 1882. “Their main aim was to do away with this system; reform lobbyists were drawn mainly from missionaries, doctors, journalists, and social workers”.[38]they wanted to abolish all such social evils and activities, in which girls takes part in the temple services. The reformers wanted to make people aware of this calamity, they organize awareness campaign and conferences to, ‘create a public opinion against the Devadasi system’.[39]Soon afterwards petitions were being submitted to the authorities, which was to the Viceroy, Governor General of India and Governor General of Madras. Most of the society and people from it had support it. The newspaper such as The Indian social reformer, & Lahore Purity Servant had supported this great cause. The people who tried to put an end to this corrupted system were mainly educated class from India, such as Doctors, journalists, social workers, apart from them, Christian missionaries and administrators also joined this crusade.

            The anti- Nautch movement was in forefront in stopping the evils of Devadasi system, initially tried to build up public opinion on this matter and late advising members to refuse to invite devadasi festivities at their homes. From 1899 onwards, the movement turned its attention to stopping this Devadasi system. The leaders who were in the forefront of the movements were, Rajaram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Govid Rande, Karve, Periyarand other prominent social reform leaders. Bhagyareddy Varma launched a movement against devadasi pratha, forcing the Nizam to declare it a crime.[40]

            The anti- nautch movement received immense support from Theosophical society of India. Pioneers like Madam H.P. Blavatsky and Colonel H.S. Olcott, the founders of the Theosophical movement, had undertaken an extensive tour of South India and propagated the revival of devadasi institutions and the associated art of sadir. They gained support from all sections of the native elite by their public denouncement of western Christian morality and materialism; In 1882, the Theosophical Society of India had set up its headquarters in Adyar, Chennai with the set goal of working towards the restoration of India’s ancient glory in art, science, and philosophy.[41]

            In the restoration of Indian art and culture the theosophical society has won. They were able to support the revival of classical dance for Bharatnatyam, with the efforts of Rukmini Devi Arundale. Theosophical society provided funds for the revival and made Arundale the champion of India’s renaissance of Indian arts and culture, especially to Bharatanatyam.

            The revivalists argue the fact that, the Bharatanatyam is to enhance a person’s spirituality plane, which meant as ‘Natya Yoga’. So, they wanted to purify this art, as a consequence of it, it underwent many changes, which was new modifications introduced in the dance, which was criticized. The revivalists mostly belonged to Brahmin-dominated Theosophical circles and many Brahmin girls started to learn the dance from devadasis[42]. 

Functions of Devadasis

            Dancing, singing was their major duties towards the temple, apart from that they had both ritualistic and non- ritualistic functions. First of all, the devadasis were expected to entertain their patron with their dance. Also, they had done certain performed duties, such as priestesses. Since, the lower castes don’t have a priest of their own, the devadasis were assigned the role of priestesses. They rendered services like vijamaraseva (fan service); in 1376 AD a gift was made to a woman for waving the chamar at the time of Chandanalagi in Simhachalam temple; an endowment for Chamarseva was made in 1381 AD by the sanis of Kodepa of the Sampradaya.[43] Devadasis were assigned with decorating the temple premises by lighting, decorating with flowers etc, A record from 1376 AD throws light to the appointment of women before the God with Kolamu or coloured designs once a week.[44]. Their other duties include, cleaning, cooking, and also, they took care of every task which are related to temples, such as leasing out the lands, gathering temple resources etc. Most of the times, the Devadasis were appointed in reciting the Vedas and Puranas

            In 1359 AD, Naramsimha Bharati made provision for keeping two florist and eight women singers to form two batches which did Sanskritanam at the time of the Dhupa in the Simhachalam temple[45]. Most of the times these women played musical instruments; an inscription dated 1356 AD makes a provision to maintain two women to play on the Veena.[46]these Devadasis had made a tremendous amount of contribution to the temple authorities, which due to their utmost devotion and it depicts their economic status.

            Devadasis sometimes even started to repair the temple when it was in terrible conditions. The devadasis of Suchindram temple constructed a Vasanta mandapa and nataksala of the Siva temple at suchindram.[47] Some devadasis were held high positions because they were conferred upon highest honours to their services. Tiru Venkata Manikkam a dancer in the temple of Sri Venkateswara or Tirumala was permitted to use a palanquin for her conveyance by the temple authorities during Achuta Raya’s time of Vijayanagar.[48]Mangavi of Belagula a devadasi hailed from Kannada region had received the honor of “Raya Patra Chudamani’ which means a crest of Jewel of royal dancing girl.

            Since the number of Devadasis were large and they were required most of times, we can see a separate quarter were provided for them in the vicinity of the temples such as Juttiga, Chebrolu etc. according to the Chebrolu inscription of General Jayapa, we can see that they build two rows of two storied buildings were constructed.

            The Devadasis led a peaceful life, because the kings and elites were able to marry the devadasis from higher caste. Velanti Gonka III married Kamidevi, the daughter of Sokkara, who was a dancer in the temple of Pandisvara at Tsandavolu.[49]

            When time passes by the positions of Devadasis became hereditary in 12^th century. The ones who served the temple as hereditary bases came to be known as Sampradaya Sanulu. They were the permanent employee of the temple.

Marriage to the Deities

            The term ‘devadasi’ which means ‘girls were married to a deity’, described in Hindu religious practice. Taking care of the temple, additionally they learn Indian classical art form and enjoyed high and respect full status in the society.

The identities of the temple women change from place to place and temples. In the Chola inscriptions they were referred as ‘devotee of God’, ‘daughter of God’ and ‘woman of the temple’. This shows that, the women’s identities were in connection with temples rather than her family, caste, or profession. They’re existed devadasi vrtti (life) or a devadasi murai (devadasi order, hereditary professional right), but not devadasi jai (devadasi caste); it seems probably that the right to become a devadasi was hereditary; but it did not confer the right to work without proper qualifications, however whether this hereditary right was used or not, depended on many factors; the wish of the parents, the looks and accomplishment of the girl, her behaviour, and the consent of the different authorities.[50]

Devotion of young girls are based on two elements; whom are devoting themselves willingly and non- willingly. The girls willingly devote themselves are those having utmost devotion to the temple and deities. The ones whom are un- willingly devoting themselves were, whose family is in economically facing annihilation, so in order to escape from the fate and save the other family members, the girl devote herself to the temple services. Through which the family will support her finally the girl becomes the property of the temple.

            There were several ways which a girl was got into the temple services, which were;

1.      Vikritas: girls were sold to the temple at a very young age or at the time of birth

2.      Bhrityas: fulfilling of vow

3.      Hrita: Orphans were handed over to the temples, and women were taught dancing

4.      Alankara: girls were handed over with a dowry to become the consort of God

5.      Gopikas: dancers hereditary or professionally entered the fold

6.      Bhaktas: joined the temple service out of devotion

The last category which is Bhaktas creates a successful divine aura around the devadasis by the temple authorities.

            There were six prescribed ceremonies before the devadasis could enter into the or take part into the temple rituals, which were

1.      Marriage

2.      Dedication

3.      Ritual first dance

4.      The presentation of ankle bells

5.      The debut recital after the completion of dance training

6.      Selection

On completion of their training, the first dance performance will take place in the temple in the presence of the king, who conferred the title of Talaikoleon the accomplished devadasi.

            Talaikoleis the earthly symbol of Indra’s sacred banner. In ancient India, the banner festival of Indra was celebrated for twenty- eight days before the rainy season to ensure abundant rains for the crops.[51] This festival is elaborated in ‘Silappadikaram’ a Tamil Epic poem.

            The devadasi was viewed as ‘nityasumangali’[52] and performed their rituals in the temple. So, it is absolute that, devadasis even exceeded sumangali[53] compared with auspiciousness. Due to this they were considered as the embodiment of Sakthi[54] and she was dedicated to Gods, and thus becoming immortal therefore to be called as ‘nityasumangali’. Thus, she was considered to be auspicious and viewed as the consort of the God. It was the Temples job to look after them, and the King had to protect them from any kind of war or internal conflicts, because they believe she will bring good luck to the nation.

            There was caste distinction between the sections of devadasis which was very large indeed. The lower castes such as Sudras and untouchable were forbidden to enter this temple service. Meanwhile, the Brahmin devadasis have been given higher certain privileges than others. Mainly, the relation of devadasis should be with brahmin priests and the kings, but it was spread to other higher castes. In Orissa, it was accepted that, the devadasis have connection with higher castes or authorities. The privilege means that, they could alone reach near the Ratnavedi[55]of the Jagannatha temple, Puri; meanwhile other castes had to dance and sing at the Natamandira, which is outside the inner sanctum.

            In south India, there are mainly two types of devadasis;

1.      Valangai(right hand)

2.      Idangai(left hand)

The Valangai only dance for the higher or right- hand castes. Meanwhile, the idangai also known as kammadasis they provided for the artisans, that is the kammadasis or left- hand castes. Devadasis literally means, temple dancers, but those who danced at court or for the high nobles, they were known as rajadasis, and those who danced for other functions such as weddings, ceremonies, or events were known as alankaradasis’[56].

            It was the devadasi’s original ceremonial husband, the Lord of the temple, who provided the energy for her following desirability for men who wished to near and replicate it in human terms. The concept of wife of God may be a cooked- up story but still is crucial here that the believer wishes to own the commodity in question himself[57]. They represented a badge of fortune, and managed the civil society by the temple.

            ‘The associated arts of Tamil Bhakti worship – sadir (dance), nagaswaram(instrumental music) and nattuvangam (dance conducting) were organised into two sections, which were;

1.      Periamelam(big drum)

2.      Cinnamelam (small drum)

Periamelam was focused upon the male nagaswaram and was specialized in pure community, meanwhile, cinnamelam focused on devadasis or female dancers and her male guru, and was focused on the mixed sections of the community’[58].  As Recruitment to profession was restricted in each group and according to the natural and cultural criteria such as:

1.      Sex- the nagaswaram as also dance- conducting was meant to be performed only by men while the sadir was danced only by women

2.      Inheritance- ‘shared’ in the local service rights to the perimelam were transmitted through male links and to the cinnamelam through female links

3.      Initiation- dedication to the deity seen as simple right of incorporation for the men and as a special ceremony of ‘marriage’ for the women, marked entrance into the profession as was compulsory for the attainment of privileges associated with temple office

4.      Training- the public demonstration of skill in one’s art subsequent to a ritual and social apprenticeship to one’s teacher was necessary preliminary to a professional career.[59]

Generally, there were mainly three common features shared by all the devadasis:

1.      Association with the dangerous divine, often in the form of the Goddess

2.      Association with rituals that should dispel these eruptions of danger

3.      Association with some specimen of performing arts as a means to dispel evil influences and to assess positive, fertile prosperity.[60]

Another aspect of devadasis was the devadasi- nityasumangalis. There major roles were to protect the king from any kind of evil influence or sickness and another was to beautifying the court. Domino Paes had mentioned that the palace dancers could even enter the presence of the wives of the king, stay with them and eat betel with them, a thing that no other person could do no matter what his rank might be.[61] Looking through these perspectives it is true that they had considered as the consort of God, in order to ward of evils and have high influence over the court.

Devadasis had an esteemed life both in life and death. They had bestowed upon them was a high and prestigious social recognition, which highest one was paid during the time of their funeral. They were sent with flowers, garland, and sandal paste from the God of the temple. In some regions, after lighting her pyre there won’t be any ritual at the time for one day. Sometimes, funeral possessions were stop at some places and they were given gifts of sandal paste and garlands such.

Economic Status of Devadasi’s

            Devadasis, whose existence was known from Harappa period onwards, have associated with the temple customs and traditions. In passage of time, the Devadasi custom was considered to be the purest and closest to the Gods. The reasons for the dedication vary from economic, socio- political- religious aspects. When a woman is devoting herself to the temple services, it mostly because of utter devotion to the temple or being dedicated with the consent of the family or without the girl’s consent. In any manner, they hold the power to control the nation. Politically looking the Devadasis have associations with the king and palace officials, and considered as a high ranking official in the palace as well. Even though, considering getting power from the government, support from the people, and the economic security which they are getting are often tempting, hence, most women or their families were willing to dedicate their girl children to the temple, considering these factors.

Devadasis were paid with a good fortune from the share of temple, sometimes they were paid in cash as well. They also received a share of prasada which was offered to the deity. Many a times the donors specified the manner of enjoying share in temple lands by the temple girls and deposited certain amount in the temple treasury for their maintenance.[62]The temple dancers made a lot of fortune from temple lands which is evident from the land grants. An epigraph of 1547 A.D records the remission of taxed paid by the dancing women to the villages of Kommuru, Voruganti, Ravipadu, Gomgulamudi belonging to the God Agastyeswara of Kommuru.[63] We also came to know the economic status of musicians and sanis, through the inscription from Sarikurmam temple (1250 AD), in which it describes about they were paid in both cash and kind. These girls were employed to render rangabhoga[64] to the God Srikurmanatha. There wages paid are as follows:

            Sanis=30, Drummers=6, Danceteachers=1, Mukhariplayers=1, Avajakadu=1, Karadakadu=1 and Melinayakadu=1. The same inscription gives details of the wages to be paid both in cash and kind to the members of the above troupe as follows, To the sanis= 42 puttis of paddy per year, 2tambulas daily to each, 3 appams daily to each, to the dance teacher= 4 madas(coins), 8 Chinnas per year, 4 Kunchas of prasada and 1 tambula daily besides 4 appams per month. To the mukhari player 3 madas per year, 2 kuncha and 1 adda prasadam and 1 tambula daily besides 4 appams per month. To each of the mrudangaavajakarada conch and Kahali players, 2 kunchas of prasada, ½ tambulla every day and 3 appams per year.[65] So, with this we come to know that, they were paid in cash as well as had share in the prasad of the temple.

Devadasis and Indian Cultural tradition

           

Devadasis were lived in the temple premises. They preserved a lot of art forms, in South India, it was Bharatanatayam (dance), Carnatic music, in Easter side it was Odissi.

 

            It has been believed that, Devadasis were taught dance by the mythological figure, Urvashi in the court of Indra. Devadasis were considered as to be the consort of the God and their major purpose was to dance for the Lord. At a very young age, they were dedicated to the temple services, by marrying the deity denoting through wearing a golden chain around their neck. Once, a girl became a devadasi, she started training in the dance form called Sadir Attam also known as Dasi Attam under the guidance of dance teachers called Nattuvanar or Koothiliar; the Nattuavanar played the role of Guru and made sure that the art form was passed down from generation to generation.[66]after their years of training, on the day of their first dance performance, they will earn the title, Thalaikole. The dance usually taken place in the temple premises, in the Natyamandapas. Even though they were involved in other activities, the dance was considered to be the most important among them. Different name was given to the Devadasis, when they performed in different occasions, such as that of in marriages (Alankara Dasis), and at royal functions (Rajadasis).

 

            During the Chola period, the position of Devadasis became hereditary, through which the Devadasi was succeeded by her daughter. This is important because it means that the orally- transmitted knowledge of dance movement and dance literature (songs and collections of rules) would be passed from mother to daughter, establishing a regular women’s tradition.[67] During the Vijayanagar period, whole of the South India was able to unify themselves, through which cultural interchange happened between the South Indian states. Dancers absorbed into their repertoire songs and dance- items from a number of different sources, creating the rich mixture which came to the nineteenth century as ‘dasi attam’ (dance of the temple- servant) or ‘sadir kacheri’ (concert dance)[68].

 

During the Vijayanagar Period they were assured of their safety by the emperor Kumar Kampana. But from 17^th century onwards, we could see a shift of devadasis from temple into the secular spaces. The rulers of Thanjavur played a major role in the promotion of music, dance and drama. Tulaja II brought Mahadeva Annavi, a prominent nattuvanar from Tirunelveli and Subbarayaoduvar to Thanjavur to strengthen the art of dance[69]. The marriage of Rajashabayi (the daughter of Shivaji II), the Marathas ordered that all the devadasis in the kingdom had to learn Hindustani and Carnatic dance. The Thanjavur Quartet[70] received an order, which made all the devadasis to learn the Carnatic dance and art forms, which made it compulsory. They systemized the devadasi dance forms and organized dance performance which was popularly known as sadhir kacheri.[71]The Kacheri was held in open halls, auditorium, mandals. Kacheri mainly took place during Diwali, Vinayaka Chathurthi, Navarathri and other important ceremonies and marriage functions. During these events the devadasis had participated as a entertainer.

            Muddupalani (1739-90 AD) was a devadasi who did her performance in the Maratha court at the time of Thanjavur Pratapa Sinha (1739- 63). Her major work was Radhika Santwanam, which shows the condition of Devadasis in 18^th century. In her work she talks about the high status of the devadasis;

Which other woman of my kind has

Felicitated scholars with gifts and money?

To which other woman of my kind have

Epics been dedicated?

Which other woman of my kind has

Won such acclaim in each of the arts?

You are incomparable, Muddupalani, among your kind[72].

She traces her literary lineage through her mother, her grandmother and her paternal aunt, each of whom she describes in great detail, she does not shy away in proclaiming her beauty by saying,[73]

A face that glows like the full moon,

Skills of conversation, matching the countenance

Eyes filled with compassion

Matching the speech.

A great spirit of generosity,

Matching the glance,

These are the ornaments. That adorn Palani, when she is praised by Kings.[74]

Banglore Nagaratnamma, in her work remarked that, her work is filled with sexuality. She also proudly noted that the author was from her same devadasi community.[75] In the preface, she wrote like this “I find the work immensely beautiful, an it has been composed not only by woman, but a woman of our community, I felt it was necessary to publish proper work.”[76]

While their work portrayed their high status in the society and their knowledge in the field of dance, music and literature, it also shows that the different levels of courtesans and temple dancer. In short, these women held high status than any other women of their time, by held the knowledge in their respective fields. By 18^th Century, Devadasis became more prevalent than the courtesans. After independence and accession of princely states, the artists didn’t go to their hometowns, instead they continued where they are and became a teacher or performer. Soon, it received much audience and popularity and came to be known as Bharatanatyam.

 

            When we look into the Orissa, the major dance tradition was Odissi. Maharis (female dancers) would dance near the Jagannath idol at morning as part of ritual. They usually put the God asleep at night as well. During these times, their dance was restricted to the public, meanwhile, during public events, the public got a chance to see their dance. But unfortunately, during the revival of Indian dance, the Maharis were not given importance by the educated elites, instead they approached ‘gotipuas’ male dancers especially young boys very well versed in dancing and dressed as women. Only one of the male teachers who were regarded as authorities in the dance came from a family of maharis, Guru Pankaj Charan Das, the foremost teacher of Odissi in the nineteen- sixties and seventies, was trained in dance by his aunt Ratnaprabha, a mahari, before he joined an all- male theatrical troupe as a youth.[77]Although there has been a significant period during which female Odissi dancers have been trained by males, Odissi dance retained its extremely feminine character, and modern female exponents of the form such as Sanjukta Panigrahi, Protima Gauri and Kumkum Mohanty have established training centres both inside and outside the modern Indian state Orissa where they are engaged in passing on the tradition to a majority of female performers.[78]

 

Degradation of the status of Devadasis

            In history, the Devadasi system had undergone many transition periods. Prostitution is not their work, most of the Devadasi had one or two patrons for their life time, but the system was always been related to prostitution and its relation to Devadasi system is very significant. The Devadasi system is centuries old, and the women once enjoyed lives of great privilege[79]they were invited to all the ceremonies of the society and their presence was considered to be auspicious. The situation turned them to be prostitutes, such as social, cultural, economic and political changes.

            The system of devadasi had lost its original purpose and went to the path of pleasure in the form of worship. Damodaragupta in his Kuttanimatam (742-51) had provided a vivid dialogue of Vitas and vesyas in the vicinity of the Varanasi temple, from these dialogues we get an impression of the medieval temples and the degeneration that had set in there.[80]the temple was visited by many but most them were interested in women only. Damodaragupta refers to the fake sadhus, who looked at women, in the name of worshiping God Shiva.

            The romantic and immoral life of devadasis were portrayed by many foreign travellers like, Abbe Dubois, Al Beruni, Domino Paes etc. Domino Paes noted them as ‘loose character’. The Devadasis were well learned, and their service was denied to the common people. This statement receives much more authenticity when a French missionary Abbe J. A. Dubois had quoted this:

            “These courtesans are the only women in India who enjoy the privilege of learning to read, to dance, and to sing. A well- bred and respectable woman would for this reason blush to acquire any of these accomplishments”[81]

            He had admired their way of life, clothing, dignity and action also their language. He says: ‘Of all the women in India it is the courtesans, and especially those attached to the temples, who are the most decently clothed. Indeed, they are particularly careful no to expose any part of the body. I do not deny, however, that is merely a refinement of seduction. Experience had no doubt taught them that for a woman to display her charms damps sensual ardour instead of exciting it, and that the imagination is more easily captivated than the eye”.[82]

Abbe Dubois has made the following observation about them.

‘All the time which they have to spare in the intervals of the various ceremonies is devoted to infinitely more shameful practices; and it is not an uncommon thing to see even sacred temples converted into mere brothels. They are brought up in this shameful licentious (life) from infancy…’[83] and

‘While the image of Venkatesvara is borne through the streets on a magnificent car, the Brahmins, who preside at the ceremony, go about among the crowd and select the most beautiful women they can find, demanding them of their husbands or parents in the name of Venkatesvara, for whose service, it is asserted, they are destined…it is thus that the seraglio of Tirupati is recruited.’[84]

            John Shortt not only highlighted the miserable conditions of the devadasis in South India but he has also made the following observation about their exploitation:

‘As soon as a girl attains maturity, her virginity, if not debauched by the pagoda Brahmins, is sold to outsiders in proportion to the wealth of the party seeking the honour, if such it may be termed, after which she leads a continuous course of prostitution- prostituting her person at random, to all but outcasts, for any trifling sum.’[85]

            Whatever the religious matters may lay’s there, it’s purely the social and economic term which attributed to this system. And it is not surprising that, people’s attitude towards the Devadasis, because they are believed to have bring good fortune to them, and also a honour for them. The priestly class supported this, because it was financial and other related benefits lays there. Devadasis were encouraged to select the persons with high social and economic values, because this only supported the temples as well as temple dancers. The elite class, patronized the devadasis despite of the expense, because in their eyes, they only brought good fortune and wealth to them and also het support from temple authorities.

            The Muslim historians noted that, they had accumulated a great sum of economic benefits, an example for this was the Sun Temple at Multan, which accumulated a great amount from the pilgrims. The Arab traveller Abu Zeid Hasan, who came to India in 867, states that, ‘she takes an apartment in this public place and spreads a curtain before her door and awaits the arrival of strangers, she prostitutes herself at a certain rate and believers her gains into the hands of the priest to be disposed off for the use and support of the temple.’[86]so, the association of temple girls was beneficial for the state as well as for the temple.

            The rulers of that period, didn’t want to abolish such practice, so it is evident that the state made profits from this also. The foreign travellers also supported this fact. Alberuni records in the 11^th century that income from prostitution in temples used to be taken by the king for meeting the expenditure of the army.[87] He also indicates that, the kings who had vested interests in the temple revenue employed the dancing girls in temples provided there was no opposition from the right- minded hindus.[88]The Prabandhachitamani informs us the King Siddharaja of Gujarat (1094-1143) collected tax from pilgrims visiting Somanatha.[89] The famous temple of Somanatha had more than 500 devadasis at the time, when the Muslim invader Ghazani came and destroyed it in 1026.

            The inscriptions from the temples of Sadali and Nadol are identical in nature, which explains the devadasi institution, which recorded the order of King Jojalladeva. in this, it states that, when the temple procession begins, all the devadasis from every temple should attend the function by wearing best cloths and participate in the procession. And the king even made sure that, it should follow in the upcoming years as well.

            Devadasis were the only section of women whom was allowed to adopt a child under hindu law, and they often adopted daughter instead of son in matter of inheritance. But unfortunately, all these benefits were degenerated in time and most of them were exploited in passage of time. Even though, as per records, we could able to understand that, not all the devadasis led a luxurious life, instead most of them led a pathetic life, which could be based on caste, community and beauty. So there also existed different types of class in devadasi section.

            When time passes, the status of devadasis was also decreased to filthy positions. Which includes, mistress of the kings, elite class, priest and also became a tool of sexual pleasure for them as well, even to the common men. At the beginning king was the only persons who were close to the devadasis because, since the time of chola’s they were considered to be closest person with God. So, the king was the only ones, who deserved the attention of the devadasis. The society had no objection in this matter, because it was happening in the name of religion. Soon afterwards, the rich merchants, priests, land-owners and village heads had started seek the attention of the devadasis. The devadasis done all the rituals in the temple, danced before the deity and also in functions and also pleased the sexual desires of the rich and elite classes, the temple organised everything in a systematic manner. The temple started to get a share of money which they receive, which can be called as a share for them or a guardian’s fee. These guardians were also the authorities of village and also in elite sections as well, so in short, the devadasis didn’t dance for the deity but instead, they danced for their guardians also gave themselves for them. Perhaps it was happening in the name of deity, they couldn’t understand that they were being used for others benefit.

            The major reason for their degradation is economic. First of all, the decline in the grants and loss of kings and temples as their supporters. This happened mainly because of wars and revolts which happened in each region, when the opposition wins, they will take down the temples, and they will seize everyone. Secondly, the decline of offerings, in which the offerings to the deity was known as ‘bhoga’ was started to decline, hence, it was impossible to satisfy all the Devadasis in the premises. And of-course the love towards the deities were decreasing also. Third and important reason is that, the increase in Devadasi families and the number of devadasis. So, it became hard to maintain the devadasis from the grant which they received, thus in time they lost their importance, and the social prestige was also lost to them. The decrease in temples and the kings who were not interested in the ideology made their condition so difficult and the ones who led their life on accordance with art, hence the singing and dancing became essential to rise the income in the daily hood of devadasis.

            With the beginning of the British time period in India, when they started to make laws, traditional Indian system went into transformation. When the British first arrived in India, they were surprised to see girls who sang and danced in temples; they called these girls as ‘nautch-girls’.[90]In Britishers view, the dancing girls are there to entertain the rich man, but they were ignorant of there ideology of devoting themselves to the God. For the Europeans, the one dancing for others was no other than a prostitute. Yet, there is no mention in any historical book written by early European visitors to indicate any evidence of prostitution on the part of ‘temple maid’ or ‘nautch- girls’.[91]

            These all came to an end with the reform movements, in which the Britishers were compelled to stop Devadasi system. Apart from this, looking from Christian view point, a woman who had more than one affair been considered to be a prostitute. So, these things in mind, the British government took over the temple revenue matters, which left the temple with less wealth and compelled the women/ temple dancers to do prostitution. Those who didn’t went to the profession of prostitute, shifted their focus to agriculture and bonded labour. In time, the upper class have been well educated and got social consciousness and went far away from the Devadasi system, but it was too late for the lower caste women, and they went into the system more often.

            In Deccan the system goes by a lot of names, but they are all one in the name of illiterate, sexually exploited Dalit women for the sake of religion. The Dalit community girls and other lower Hindu castes sections were considered to be as ‘untouchables. They were not allowed to drink water from the same well as the high caste drinks. But it is interesting to note that, when it comes to sexual pleasure, they became ‘touchable’.  These girls are married off to the local deity, Yellamma, making Goddesses of them and forfeiting their own right to marry; then as joginis or ‘servants of God’ they become the property of the men in the village.[92] When these girls attaining puberty, they were all offered to the upper caste people or landlords, and they are end up being sexually exploited.

            Evans (1997) in his study titled ‘Contemporary Devadasis: Empowered Auspicious Women or Exploited Prostitutes’ clearly explains how devadasis are associated with prostitution.[93]In his work, he clearly explains that “even though the representations are generally context- sensitive, studies of the contemporary devadasis have mainly focused on the gendered dimension of the devadasi- hood, that is, the devadasi as synonymous or reducible to a common prostitute.”[94]It is still hard to find out how the ‘prostitution’ label has been attached to Devadasi. One explanation is that the generic term ‘devadasi’ is applied to any woman associated with theogamy (principally the cult of Yellamma- Renuka) in Karnataka, overlooking the diversity of her ritual statuses as the ‘chaste’ degraded and pious wife of Siva Jamadagni.[95]If we look into it closely, it is clear that the degenerated wife is associated with prostitution. Another explanation is that such a misappropriation of the term ‘devadasi’ may reflect a secularized sociological perspective which represents the devadasis as predominantly exploited rather than empowered, this perspective is reflected in the newspaper reports in which the Yellamma- Renuka temple is portrayed as a ‘recruiting center’ for prostitutes; an increasing social and sociological concern for women’s issues in contemporary Indian society arguably makes the sociological perspective a valid representation of the contemporary devadasi as an exploited sex worker, especially if she comes from rural scheduled caste communities.[96]The issue was more severe and there found to be ‘sacred’, ‘clandestine’ or ‘commercial’ prostitutes, with the first category dominant in Karnataka[97]. It clearly depicts the change of devadasis into prostitutes.

            There is a saying in Marathi- ‘Devadasi devachi, baykosaaryagavachi’, means ‘servant of God but the wife of the whole town’.[98]Being a devadasi gives them the religious sanction to indulge in prostitution, so unlike the other prostitutes the devadasi women do not hesitate to become prostitutes; prostitution is considered immoral in society, however, dedication is used to justify the practice of prostitution, hence the devadasi escapes the social stigma.[99] Moreover, the devadasis considered the prostitute work as workshop of Goddess.

With the change of kingdoms, regions and cultures, the Devadasis have different names in each regions, such as devar adigalar, tevataci, tevaratiyar, patiyilar, talicceripendukal, tevanarmakal, cottikal, atikalmar, manikkattar, kanikaiyar, emperumanatiyar and koyilpinakkal in Tamilnadu, tevidicchi, nangaimar, kudikkari, muraikkari, kootachi, koothichi, and attakkari in Kerala, suleyar or sule, poti, basavi and jogtis in Karnataka, sanis and bhogam in Andhra Pradesh, darikas, patras and maharis in Orissa, kurmapus and kudipus in Assam, bhavin and kalavant in Konkani and Marathi and in Bombay presidency each shrine had its own name for its girls,[100]kalavantin and bhavin in Goa[101].

Why is Devadasis prevalent only in Southern part of India?

            When we look into the history of India, the political and religious structure was almost the same during the ancient period. People from different dynasties from India, had worshipped God’s according to their likings, nowadays it all came down to the prominent Hindu deities and temples, which follows the customs and traditions according to the Vedas, Upanishads, etc. but the change came, when the foreign dynasties came into India, and started to rule us, especially the Delhi sultanate and Mughal empire, they arrived and started to capture dynasties one by one, and changed to whole temple structure and introduced new belief. All of these events took place in the North- western part of India. The Muslim dynasties couldn’t extend their power upto the southern parts, even if they did, it was short lived. They changed the complete landscape of the northern region, by capturing each dynasty they ended the temple monopoly and thus made a climax to the Devadasi system. But in the southern and peninsular region, apart from some attacks, their influence wasn’t much stronger.

During the Vijayanagar period, they have revived the Devadasi and temple customs, which made huge impacts in the current day Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and parts of Tamil Nadu, and with the rise of Maratha Clan in the Maharashtra region also revived this culture. Meanwhile, the Muslim dynasties started to fall off in the north, and saw new feudatories both Muslim and Hindu, but there was internal conflict was happening, they couldn’t hold their ground much longer, and the temples couldn’t insert their authority upon them in this power conflict. When the British came, they came across these devadasis, and considered them as prostitutes. When the education and missionaries hold their ground firm, laws were passed to curb these issues. But people couldn’t easily let go off a system they have been following since centuries, even if they were able to curb the issue, they couldn’t completely annihilate it. For most this was a source of income, and for some it was a source of pleasure and for some it was their belief.   

Welfare of Devadasis: A Historical Context

            The first ruler who took the initiative to abolish the devadasi system was Mughal emperor Aurangzeb during 17^th century. He tried by demolishing the temple of Khandoba at Jejuri in Maharashtra. Because that place had produced an immense number of ‘Murali’s’ (devadasis). His effort didn’t pay off well, and wasn’t succeeded to this day. Khandoba temple continuous to be the fountain head of ‘Muralis’, majority of the Murali’s belonged to the backward class community, which is exploited sexually and socially today.[102]

In the British era, the social reform movements and its leader continuously condemned Devadasi systema and wanted to abolish it from the phase of earth. Leaders like, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Govind Rande, Karve, Ishwara Chandra Vidyasagar, were the prominent thinkers whom pleaded for the abolishment of this system. The major role was played by E. V. Ramaswamy, also known as “Periyar”, through his “Self- Respect Movement”. He advocated the rights of freedom and marriage for Devadasis.

            During 20^th century, a lady missionary, named Amy Carmichael saw the practice of devadasi system in south India. in 1901 she rescued a girl from Madras province who was just joined the practice of devadasi. From then onwards she started a Devadasi rescue home named, ‘Tara Mandal’ for helping the girls who had suffered and giving them basic education. She then extended her organisation. Till 1904 on she led a mission to rescue girl from the clutches of Devadasi system, in which she succeeded in helping seventeen such girls.

            In Maharashtra, renowned social reformer Vithal Ramji Shinde has conducted a census of ‘Muralis’ and ‘Devadasis’ and published an essay on the Devadasi exploitation, in 1907, according to his findings, majority of the Murali’s and Devadasis belonged to the backward castes (depressed classes); and also pointed out that the males in these classes condoned even supported, the tradition because of their addition to alcohol.[103] Maharaja Sarjajirao Gaikwad of the former princely state of Baroda has showed his willingness to support Shinde’s cause.

            In 1934, the Devadasi prevention act was enacted by the British Government of India, which was initially applicable to Bombay and Mysore state only. But it wasn’t strictly implemented and remained in paper only, even after India got independence. During 1940-50 Dr. Ambedkar improved the conditions of depressed class by that tried to eliminate the Devadasi system which prevailed among them. He wrote against this evil, and mentioned that, this system is the creation of the Upper class and we the lower class have to abolish it.

           

            While looking into the historicity of Devadasi custom, the Kings used religion as a source to maintain peace and order in the society, in which the people saw the king as the messenger of God, and kept their trust in him. With the establishment of temples, major purpose of this was to get more revenue. With the growth of the temple their introduced new customs and traditions a major example is that of Devadasi. In time, there established laws and tradition for the Devadasis eventually they even became a sub- caste in the Hindu society. But the arrival of Islamism and British empire the whole structure has been changed, their status in the society has been reduced to minimal, and they were considered as pests in the society. Laws established to curb the system of Devadasi and to protect them, which was not an easy task to do. They were not willing to let off their centuries of customs and traditions, meanwhile the Devadasis and their families and societies are not aware that, they were being used by the rich section of the society in the name of belief. Even though the Government and non- government organisations are working to make a clear distinct idea about this issue, most of the sections aren’t willing to listen and going forth with their superstitious beliefs and customs.

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[1]Harishankar, Dr. V. Bharathi and Dr. M Priyamvadh. Exploitation of Women as Devadasis and its Associated Evils. New Delhi, 2016. English. p. 13.

[2] Mishra, Dr. Purna Chandra. "Tradition of Devadasi: A Conceptual Framework in India and Abroad." Odisha Review (2014): 33-36. English. p. 34- 35

[3]N.M Penzer. “The Ocean of Story”. Vol. I, London, 1924, p. 231

[4]Mishra, Dr. Purna Chandra. Op. cit. p.  35.

[5]Mishra, Dr. Purna Chandra. Op. cit. p. 35

[6]Aiyangar, S Krishnaswami. South India and her Muhammadan invaders. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1991. English. p. 233

[7]Harishankar, Dr. V. Bharathi and Dr. M Priyamvadh op.cit., p. 10

[8]V R R Dikshitar (ed). The Silapaddikaram. Madras: Oxford University Press, 1939. English. p. 57

[9]Jha, Sudha and Dr. Preeti Panjwani., Op. cit. p. 241

[10]Jha, Sudha and Dr. Preeti Panjwani. "Facets of Exploitation of Women in Ancient India." April 2008. English. p. 240-241

[11]Desai, Devangana. Erotic Sculptures of India (A Socio- cultural Study). New Delhi, 1975. English. p. 155

[12] Mishra., op.cit. p. 34

[13]Narjinari, Nijwm. "Devadasi: Antiquity of Devadasi System." 24 May 2017. https://dadospdf.com/download/devdasi-_5ae5a54fb7d7bcf438f03d87_pdf. English. 26 June 2021 (234- 296) p. 243.

[14]Sircar, D C. p. 201- 205

[15]Sircar, D C. Studies in the Religious Life of Ancient and Medieval India. Patna, 1971. English. p. 201

[16] Jha, Sudha. Op. cit., p. 244.

[17]Minakshi. Administration and Social Life Under the Pallavas. Madras, 1939. English. p. 18

[18] Mishra, Dr. Purna Chandra. "Mahari Tradition of Sri Jagannath Temple." Odisha Review (2013): 49- 53. English. p. 50

[19] Servants

[20] Ibid. 50

[21]Harishankar, Dr. V. Bharathi and Dr. M Priyamvadh., op. cit. p. 245

[22]Harishankar., op.cit. p. 12.

[23] Ibid. p. 317- 18

[24]Mahalingam, T V. Kanchipuram in Early South Indian History. Bombay, 1969. English. p. 17.

[25]Minakshi.Op. cit. p. 163

[26] Jha, Sudha. Op. cit., p. 249.

[27] Devadasi, available at (Devadasi | Wikigender) accessed on 5/02/2021

[28] Alpha women of Hampi. Available at (Alpha women of Hampi - The Hindu BusinessLine) accessed on 05/02/2021

[29] Patil, B R. "The Devadasis." Indian Journal of Social Work (1975): 377- 389. English. p. 378

[30] Ibid. p. 387

[31] Devadasi., Op.Cit.

[32]Shivasharanappa, Prasannakumar and Dr. L. Srinivasa. "Devadasi Practice in Karnataka." Golden Research Thoughts March 2012. English.p. 2

[33] Ibid., p. 2.

[34] Ibid., p. 3.

[35]Gayathri, A N. "Devadasi: An Institutionalized Exploitation of Women." Journal of Social Welfare and Management (2014): 153-157. English. p. 154

[36] Devadasi- Holy Aryan Hindu Prostitution system in Indian temples, available at (Devadasi – Holy Aryan Hindu Prostitution System in Indian Temples | Velivada) accessed on 04/02/2021

[37]V, Sriram. The Devadasi and the Saint: The life and times of Bangalore Nagarathnamma. Chennai: Oxford University Press, n.d. English

[38]Harishankar., op.cit., p. 15

[39]Harishankar., op.cit., p.15.

[40]The Moving Story of This Social Reformer from Telangana Is a Must Read! - Chai Bisket (19/01/2021)

[41]Lawz Magazine. 15 July 2020. English. 20 01 2021

[42]Balakrishnan, Nirmala. The Gulf Indians. 28 July 2020. English. 18 01 2021.

[43]Pande, Rekha and S. Jeevanandam. "Devadasis, the Temple Dancing girls in Medieval Deccan (12th to 18th Century)." History and Archaeology (2013): 81-104. English. p. 92

[44] Jeevanandam, S and Rekha Pande. "Devadasis and gift giving in Medieval south India." Zenith: International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research (2012): 181- 191. English. p. 186

[45] Ibid. p. 186

[46] Pande, Rekha. Op. cit. p. 92

[47] Jeevanandam, S. Op. cit. p. 186

[48] Pande, Rekha. Op. cit. p. 93

[49] Jeevanandam, S. op.cit. p. 187

[50]Kersenboom, Saskia. Nityasumangali- Devadasi Tradition in South India. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Limited, 1998. P. 179.

[51]Devi, Ragini. Dance Dialects of India. New Delhi, 1972. P. 46-47

[52] A woman eternally free from the adversity of widowhood and ever auspicious women

[53] Married women or single girl becoming a respectable woman through marriage

[54] A powerful goddess, Durga.

[55]An altar inlaid with jewels in the inner sanctum

[56] Narjinari, Nijwm. Op. cit. p. 261

[57]Narjinari, Nijwm. Op. cit. p. 261

[58]Narjinari, Nijwm. Op. cit. p. 262

[59]Srinivasa, Amrit- Reform or Revival- the Devadasi and her Dance, p. 1870- 71

[60]Narjinari, Nijwm. Op. cit. p. 264

[61]Narjinari, Nijwm. Op. cit. p. 264

[62]Pande, Rekha. Op.cit. p. 94

[63]Pande, Rekha. Op. cit. p. 94

[64] According to Bhakti cult, it consists of entertaining the God by various performing arts which is conducted on stage specially meant for this purpose.

[65]Pande, Rekha. Op. cit. p. 94

[66] India culture. From Sadir Attam to Bharatanatyam., available at( https://indianculture.gov.in/stories/sadir-attam-bharatanatyam) accessed on 22/06/2021

[67] Stevens, Christel. Aunties and Gurus: Women's contributions to Asian Indian Dance. Washington: A Bell& Howell information company, 1997. English. P. 40

[68] Ibid. p. 41

[69]Arivudainambi, M.S. 2006.ThanjaiMarattiyaMannarkalValarthaNunkalaikalKi.Pi1676- 1855 (Fine Arts under the Mahrattas of Thanjavur. A.D. 1676- 1855) (in Tamil). Puduchery: KarumaniPathippakam. p. 237

[70]Thanjavur Quartet is the famous brothers of Chinnaiah, Ponnaiah, Vadivel and Sivanandam. They were exponent in performing art especially in dance. They were belonged the Isai Vellala community of south India. They are considered as the chief architects of Indian classical performance of sadhir, which is popularly known as Bharatanatyam of modern day

[71]Krishnan, Hari. 2008. “Inscribing Practice: Reconfiguration and Textualizations of Devadasi Repertoire in Nineteenth and Early Twentieth century South India”. in Indira Viswanathan Peterson and Davesh Soneji. Ed. Performing Pasts: Reinventing the Arts in Modern South India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 74

[72]Tharu, Susie J. and K. Lalita. Ed. 1993.Women Writing in India 600 B.C. to the early 20th Century. Delhi: Oxford University Press. p.116

[73]Pande., op.cit., p.95

[74]Tharu, op.cit., p. 117

[75] V, Sriram. Op.cit. 39

[76]Tharu, op.cit., p. 117

[77] Stevens, Christel. Op. cit. p. 37

[78] Stevens, Christel. Op. cit. p. 37- 38

[79]Dalrymple, William. "Serving the Goddess." 4 August 2008. The New Yorker. English. 01 20 2021

[80] Jha, op.cit. p. 288

[81] Dubois Abbe, Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies, Oxford University Press, 1978, p. 586.

[82] Ibid., p. 586

[83] Shankar, Jogan. Devadasi Cult: A Sociological Analysis. South Asia Books, 1990. English. p. 55

[84] Jha, Op.cit. p. 289

[85] Jha. Op.cit., p. 289

[86]Mazumdar, Bhakat Prasad. Socio- Economic History of Northern India, 1030- 1194 AD. Calcutta: Oriental press private limited, 1960. English. p. 371

[87]Ibid, p. 372

[88] Meenakshi., op. cit. p. 387

[89] Desai. Op.cit., p. 155

[90]Bhattacharya, Rahul. "Law Making, Cultural shifts+ life of Devadasis." 12 May 2013. theblackyellowarrow. English. 20 01 2021

[91]Ibid.

[92] Ibid

[93]Harishankar., op.cit., p. 44

[94]Evans, Kirsti. "Contemporary Devadasis: Empowered Auspicious Women or Exploited Prostitutes?" Bulletin of the John Rylands Library (n.d.): 23-38. English. p. 25

[95]Harishankar., op.cit. 45

[96] Ibid. p. 25

[97]Trivedi, H M. Scheduled Caste Women: Studies in exploitation. Delhi: Concept Publishing Company, 1977. English.

[98]Mehta, Dhriti and Anisha Pathak. "Devadasi- Transcending Casteism into Submission." (n.d.): 10. English. p. 2

[99]Harishankar., Op. cit. 45

[100]Reddy, Y Ramachandra and R M Sridevi. "The origin and historical development of Devadasi system in India." International Journal of Applied Research (2019): 106-109. English. p. 109

[101] Kalaivani, R. "Devadasi system in India and Its Legal initiatives- an analysis." IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science (2015): 50- 55. English. p. 51

[102]Dasgupta, Pritha. "Listening to Devadasis- A story of exploitation and vulnerability." International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences (2017): 69-77. English. p. 72

[103] Ibid. p. 72.